The hand with a wheel on the palm symbolizes. The word in the middle is ahiṃsā. The wheel represents the, which stands for the resolve to halt the saṃsāra ('transmigration') through relentless pursuit of truth and non-violence. The principle of ('non-violence' or 'non-injury') is a fundamental tenet of Jainism.

It believes that one must abandon all violent activity, and without such a commitment to non-violence all religious behavior is worthless. In Jain theology, it does not matter how correct or defensible the violence may be, one must not kill any being, and 'non-violence is one's highest religious duty'. Jain texts such as and state that one must renounce all killing of living beings, whether tiny or large, movable or immovable. Its theology teaches that one must neither kill another living being, nor cause another to kill, nor consent to any killing directly or indirectly. Furthermore, Jainism emphasizes non-violence against all beings not only in action but also in speech and in thought. It states that instead of hate or violence against anyone, 'all living creatures must help each other'. Violence negatively affects and destroys one's soul, particularly when the violence is done with intent, hate or carelessness, or when one indirectly causes or consents to the killing of a human or non-human living being.

The idea of reverence for non-violence ( ahiṃsā) is founded in Hindu and Buddhist canonical texts, and it may have origins in more ancient Vedic thoughts. However, no other Indian religion has developed the non-violence doctrine and its implications on everyday life as has Jainism. The theological basis of non-violence as the highest religious duty has been interpreted by some Jain scholars not to 'be driven by merit from giving or compassion to other creatures, nor a duty to rescue all creatures', but resulting from 'continual self-discipline', a cleansing of the soul that leads to one's own spiritual development which ultimately affects one's salvation and release from rebirths. Causing injury to any being in any form creates bad which affects one's rebirth, future well being and suffering. Late medieval Jain scholars re-examined the Ahiṃsā doctrine when one is faced with external threat or violence.

For example, they justified violence by monks to protect nuns. According to Dundas, the Jain scholar Jinadatta Suri wrote during a time of Muslim destruction of temples and persecution that 'anybody engaged in a religious activity who was forced to fight and kill somebody would not lose any spiritual merit but instead attain deliverance'. However, such examples in Jain texts that condone fighting and killing under certain circumstances are relatively rare.

Many-sided reality ( anekāntavāda). Main article: The third main principle in Jainism is aparigraha which means non-attachment to worldly possessions. For ascetics, Jainism requires a vow of complete non-possession of any property. For Jain laypersons, it recommends limited possession of property that has been honestly earned, and giving excess property to charity. According to Natubhai Shah, aparigraha applies to both the material and the psychic. Material possessions refer to various forms of property. Psychic possessions refer to emotions, likes and dislikes, and attachments of any form.

Unchecked attachment to possessions is said to result in direct harm to one's personality. Jainism views attachments to material or emotional possessions as what leads to passions, which in turn leads to violence. According to the aparigraha principle, a Jain monk or nun is expected to be homeless and family-less with no emotional longings or attachments. The ascetic is a wandering mendicant in the Digambara tradition, or a resident mendicant in the tradition. In addition, Jain texts mention that 'attachment to possessions' ( parigraha) is of two kinds: attachment to internal possessions ( ābhyantara parigraha), and attachment to external possessions ( bāhya parigraha). For internal possessions, Jainism identifies four key passions of the mind ( ): anger, pride (ego), deceitfulness, and greed. In addition to the four passions of the mind, the remaining ten internal passions are: wrong belief, the three sex-passions (male sex-passion, female sex-passion, neuter sex-passion), and the six defects (laughter, like, dislike, sorrow, fear, disgust).

Jain ethics and five vows. Depicting the vow of sallekhana, 14th century, Jainism teaches five ethical duties, which it calls five vows.

These are called anuvratas ('small vows') for Jain laypersons, and mahavratas ('great vows') for Jain mendicants. For both, its moral precepts preface that the Jain has access to a ('teacher', 'counsellor'), deva ('Jina', 'god'), doctrine, and that the individual is free from five offences: doubts about the faith, indecisiveness about the truths of Jainism, sincere desire for Jain teachings, recognition of fellow Jains, and admiration for their spiritual pursuits. Such a person undertakes the following Five vows of Jainism:., 'intentional non-violence' or 'noninjury': The first major vow taken by Jains is to cause no harm to other human beings, as well as all living beings (particularly animals).

This is the highest ethical duty in Jainism, and it applies not only to one's actions, but demands that one be non-violent in one's speech and thoughts., 'truth': This vow is to always speak the truth. Neither lie, nor speak what is not true, and do not encourage others or approve anyone who speaks an untruth., 'not stealing': A Jain layperson should not take anything that is not willingly given. Additionally, a Jain mendicant should ask for permission to take it if something is being given., 'celibacy': Abstinence from sex and sensual pleasures is prescribed for Jain monks and nuns. For laypersons, the vow means chastity, faithfulness to one's partner., 'non-possessiveness': This includes non-attachment to material and psychological possessions, avoiding craving and greed.

Jain monks and nuns completely renounce property and social relations, own nothing and are attached to no one. Practices Asceticism. Main article: Of all the major Indian religions, Jainism has had the strongest austerity-driven ascetic tradition, and it is an essential part of a mendicant's spiritual pursuits. Ascetic life may include nakedness symbolizing non-possession of even clothes, fasting, body mortification, penance, and other austerities, in order to burn away past karma and stop producing new karma, both of which are believed in Jainism to be essential for reaching siddha and moksha ('liberation from rebirths', and 'salvation'). Jain texts like Tattvartha Sūtra and Uttaradhyayana Sūtra discuss ascetic austerities to great lengths and formulations.

Six outer and six inner practices are most common, and oft-repeated in later Jain texts. According to John Cort, outer austerities include complete fasting, eating limited amounts, eating restricted items, abstaining from tasty foods, mortifying the flesh, and guarding the flesh (avoiding anything that is a source of temptation). Inner austerities include expiation, confession, respecting and assisting mendicants, studying, meditation, and ignoring bodily wants in order to abandon the body. Lists of internal and external austerities in Jainism varies with the text and tradition.

Asceticism is viewed as a means to control desires, and a means to purify the jiva ('soul'). The tirthankaras of Jainism, such as the Mahāvīra (Vardhamana) set an example of leading an ascetic life by performing severe austerities for twelve years.

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Food and fasting. Left: Jain nuns meditating, Right: 10th century depicting standing meditation ( posture) Jainism considers meditation ( dhyana) a necessary practice, but its goals are very different from those in Buddhism and Hinduism. In Jainism, meditation is concerned more with stopping karmic attachments and activity, not as a means to transformational insights or self-realization in other Indian religions. Meditation in early Jain literature is a form of austerity and ascetic practice in Jainism, while in late medieval era the practice adopted ideas from other Indian traditions. According to Paul Dundas, this lack of meditative practices in early Jain texts may be because substantial portions of ancient Jain texts were lost. According to, is a practice of 'brief periods in meditation' in Jainism that is a part of siksavrata ('ritual restraint'). The goal of Sāmāyika is to achieve equanimity, and it is the second siksavrata.

The samayika ritual is practiced at least three times a day by mendicants, while a layperson includes it with other ritual practices such as Puja in a Jain temple and doing charity work. According to Johnson, as well as Jaini, samayika connotes more than meditation, and for a Jain householder is the voluntary ritual practice of 'assuming temporary ascetic status'. The Digambara Jain scholar Kundakunda, in his Pravacanasara states that a Jain mendicant should meditate on 'I, the pure self'. Anyone who considers his body or possessions as 'I am this, this is mine' is on the wrong road, while one who meditates, thinking the antithesis and 'I am not others, they are not mine, I am one knowledge' is on the right road to meditating on the 'soul, the pure self'.

Rituals and worship. Jain worship may include ritual offerings and recitals. The basic worship ritual practised by Jains is darsana ('seeing') of deva, which includes Jina, or other, gods and goddesses such as Brahmadeva, 52 Viras, Padmavati, Ambika and 16 Vidyadevis (Sarasvati, Lakshmi, others).

The Terapanthi sub-tradition of Digambaras do not worship many of the deities popular among mainstream Digambaras, and they limit their ritual worship to Tirthankaras. The worship ritual is called the devapuja, is found in all Jaina sub traditions, which share common features. Typically, the Jaina layperson enters the temple inner sanctum in simple clothing and bare feet, with a plate filled with offerings, bows down, says the, completes his or her litany and prayers, sometimes is assisted by the temple priest, leaves the offerings and then departs. Jain practices include performing ('ceremonial bath') of the images. Some Jain sects employ a pujari (also called upadhye) for rituals, who may be a non-Jain (a Hindu), to perform special rituals and other priestly duties at the temple. More elaborate worship includes ritual offerings such as rice, fresh and dry fruits, flowers, coconut, sweets, and money. Some may light up a lamp with camphor and make auspicious marks with sandalwood paste.

Devotees also recite Jain texts, particularly the life stories of the tirthankaras. The traditional Jains, like Buddhists and Hindus, believe in the efficacy of and that certain sounds and words are inherently auspicious, powerful and spiritual. The most famous of the mantras, broadly accepted in various sects of Jainism, is the 'five homage' ( ) mantra which is believed to be eternal and existent since the first ford-maker's time. The medieval era Jain worship practices, according to Ellen Gough, also developed tantric diagrams of the Rishi-mandala where the tirthankaras are portrayed. The Tantric traditions within Jainism use mantra and rituals that are believed to accrue merit for rebirth realms.

Celebrating (Paryusana), New York City Jains celebrate many annual festivals. Many of the major festivals in Jainism fall in and around the comasu (Sanskrit: chaturmasa) period of the calendar. It is the four month monsoon period when the Jain ascetics are mandated to remain in residence at one place in the Jain tradition, rather than be traveling or going around Indian villages and towns and never staying in one place for more than a month. The comasu period allows the four orders of the Jain community to be together and participate in the festive remembrances. The most important annual Jain festival is called the Paryushana by Svetambaras and Dasa lakshana parva by the Digambaras.

It is celebrated from the 12th day of waning moon in the traditional luni-solar month of in the. This typically falls in August or September of the Gregorian calendar. It lasts eight days for Svetambaras, and ten days among the Digambaras.

It is a time when lay people fast and pray. The five vows are emphasized during this time. Svetambaras recite the Kalpasūtras, while Digambaras read their own texts. The festival is an occasion where Jains make active effort to stop cruelty towards other life forms, freeing animals in captivity and preventing slaughter of animals. I forgive all living beings, may all living beings forgive me. All in this world are my friends, I have no enemies.

— Jain festival prayer on the last day The last day involves a focused prayer/meditation session known as. Jains consider this as a day of atonement, granting forgiveness to others, seeking forgiveness from all living beings, physically or mentally asking for forgiveness and resolving to treat everyone in the world as friends.

Forgiveness is asked by saying ' ' or ' Khamat Khamna' to others. This means, 'If I have offended you in any way, knowingly or unknowingly, in thought, word or action, then I seek your forgiveness.' The literal meaning of Paryushana is 'abiding' or 'coming together'. Celebrates the birth of Mahāvīra. It is celebrated on the 13th day of the luni-solar month of in the traditional Indian calendar. This typically falls in March or April of the Gregorian calendar.

The festivities include visiting Jain temples, pilgrimages to shrines, reading Jain texts and processions of Mahāvīra by the community. At his legendary birthplace of Kundagrama in, north of Patna, special events are held by Jains. Is observed by Jains as the anniversary of Mahāvīra's attainment of. The Hindu festival of is also celebrated on the same date ( Kartika Amavasya). Jain temples, homes, offices, and shops are decorated with lights and ('small oil lamps').

The lights are symbolic of knowledge or removal of ignorance. Sweets are often distributed. On Diwali morning, Nirvan Ladoo is offered after praying to Mahāvīra in all Jain temples across the world. The Jain new year starts right after Diwali. Some other festivals celebrated by Jains are and, similar to those in the Hindu communities. Main articles: and Jiva means 'soul' in Jainism, and is also called jivatman. It is a core concept and the fundamental focus of the Jain theology.

The soul is believed to be eternal, and a substance that undergoes constant modifications, in every life, after every rebirth of a living being. Jiva consists of pure consciousness in the Jain thought, has innate 'free will' that causes it to act but is believed to be intangible and formless. It is the soul that experiences existence and gains knowledge, not mind nor body both believed to a heap of matter. Jain philosophy further believes that the soul is the mechanism of rebirth, and karma accumulation. It is the same size in all living beings, such as a human being, a tiny insect and a large elephant. Jiva is everywhere, filling and infused in every minuscule part of the entire loka (realm of existence), according to Jainism.

The soul has the potential to reach omniscience and eternal bliss, and end the cycles of rebirth and associated suffering, which is the goal of Jain spirituality. The jiva is believed to rely on other dravya to function. The Jain philosophy completely separates body (matter) from the soul (consciousness).

Souls reside in bodies and journey endlessly through (that is, realms of existence through cycles of rebirths and redeaths). Jivas are believed to be of two types, stationary and mobile. Illustration of the former are plants, while moving jivas include examples such as human beings, animals, gods, hell beings and insects. Jivas are further classified in Jain philosophy by assigned number of senses which range from one sensory organ to five sensory organs. Inert world such as air, fire or clod of dirt, considered non-sensate in contemporary science, are asserted in historic texts of Jainism to be living and with sensory powers.

Ajiva consists of everything other than jiva. Life processes such as breath, means of knowledge such as language, all emotional and biological experiences such as pleasure and pain are all believed in Jainism to be made of pudgala ('matter'). These interact with tattva or reality to create, bind, destroy or unbind karma particles to the soul. According to Dundas, Dharma as a metaphysical substance in Jain philosophy may be understood as 'that which carries' instead of the literal sense of ordinary physical motion. Thus, dharma includes all verbal and mental activity, that contribute to karma and purification of the soul. Tattva ('Reality'). Main article: According to Jainism, the existence of 'a bound and ever changing soul' is a self-evident truth, an axiom which does not need to be proven.

There are numerous souls, but every one of them has three qualities ( ): consciousness ( caitanya, most important quality of soul), bliss ( sukha) and vibrational energy ( virya). The vibration draws karmic particles to the soul and creates bondages, but is also what adds merit or demerit to the soul.

Karma, like in other Indian religions, connotes in Jainism the universal cause and effect law. However, it is envisioned as a material substance (subtle matter) that can bind to the soul, travel with the soul substance in bound form between rebirths, and affect the suffering and happiness experienced by the jiva in the lokas.

Karma is also believed to obscure and obstruct the innate nature and striving of the soul, as well as its spiritual potential in the next rebirth. The relationship between the soul and karma, states Padmanabh Jaini, can be explained with the analogy of gold. Like gold is always found mixed with impurities in its original state, Jainism holds that the soul is not pure at its origin but is always impure and defiled like natural gold. One can exert effort and purify gold, similarly, Jainism states that the defiled soul can be purified by proper refining methodology. Karma either defiles the soul further, or refines it to a cleaner state, and this affects future rebirths. Karma is thus an ( nimitta) in Jain philosophy, but not the ( upadana). The soul is believed to be the material cause.

Tirthankara-nama-karma is a special type of karma, bondage of which raises a soul to the supreme status of a tirthankara. Classification of Saṃsāri Jīvas (transmigrating souls) in Jainism Jain texts state that souls exist as 'clothed with material bodies', where it entirely fills up the body. There are five types of bodies in the Jaina thought: earthly (e.g. Most humans, animals and plants), metamorphic (e.g. Gods, hell beings, fine matter, some animals and a few humans who can morph because of their perfections), transference type (e.g.

Good and pure substances realized by ascetics), fiery (e.g. Heat that transforms or digests food), and karmic (the substrate where the karmic particles reside and which make the soul ever changing). Jain philosophy further divides the earthly body by symmetry, number of sensory organs, vitalities ( ayus), functional capabilities and whether one body hosts one soul or one body hosts many. Every living being has one to five senses, three balas (power of body, language and mind), respiration (inhalation and exhalation), and life-duration. All living beings, in every realm including the gods and hell beings, accrue and destroy eight types of karma according to the elaborate theories in Jain texts. Elaborate descriptions of the shape and function of the physical and metaphysical universe, and its constituents, are also provided in the. All of these elaborate theories attempt to illustrate and consistently explain the Jain karma theory in a deeply moral framework, much like Buddhism and Hinduism but with significant differences in the details and assumptions.

Are reborn in various realms of existence depending on their, according to Jainism. The conceptual framework of the Saṃsāra doctrine differs between the Jainism traditions and other Indian religions. For instance, in Jaina traditions, soul ( jiva) is accepted as a truth, as is assumed in the Hindu traditions. It is not assumed in the Buddhist traditions. However, Saṃsāra or the cycle of rebirths, has a definite beginning and end in Jainism.

The Jaina theosophy, unlike Hindu and Buddhist theosophies, asserts that each soul passes through 8,400,000 birth-situations, as they circle through Saṃsāra. As the soul cycles, states Padmanabh Jaini, Jainism traditions believe that it goes through five types of bodies: earth bodies, water bodies, fire bodies, air bodies and vegetable lives.

With all human and non-human activities, such as rainfall, agriculture, eating and even breathing, minuscule living beings are taking birth or dying, their souls are believed to be constantly changing bodies. Perturbing, harming or killing any life form, including any human being, is considered a sin in Jainism, with negative karmic effects. Souls begin their journey in a primordial state, and exist in a state of consciousness continuum that is constantly evolving through Saṃsāra. Some evolve to a higher state; some regress asserts the Jaina theory, a movement that is driven by the karma. Further, Jaina traditions believe that there exist Abhavya ('incapable'), or a class of souls that can never attain ('liberation'). The Abhavya state of soul is entered after an intentional and shockingly evil act. Jainism considers souls as pluralistic each in a karma-samsara cycle, and does not subscribe to -style ('not two') of Hinduism, or -style nondualism of Buddhism.

A liberated soul in Jainism is one who has gone beyond Saṃsāra, is at the apex, is omniscient, remains there eternally, and is known as a Siddha. Rebirth loka (realms of existence) in Jain cosmology.

Jain texts propound that the universe consists of many eternal lokas ('realms of existence'). As in Buddhism and Hinduism, Jain cosmology believes both time and the universe are eternal without beginning and end, and that the universe is transient (impermanent in attributes) at the same time. The universe, body, matter and time are considered in Jain philosophy as separate from the soul ( jiva or jivatman). Their interaction explains life, living, death and rebirth. Division of time in Jain cosmology.

According to the Jain texts, the universe is divided into three parts, the upper, middle, and lower worlds, called respectively urdhva loka, madhya loka, and adho loka. As with the realms of existences, Kāla ('time') is without beginning and eternal; the cosmic wheel of time, called kālachakra, rotates ceaselessly. According to Jain texts, in this part of the universe, there are six periods of time within two aeons ( ara), and in the first aeon the universe generates, and in the next it degenerates. Thus, the worldly cycle of time is divided into two parts or half-cycles, utsarpiṇī ('ascending') and ('descending').

Utsarpiṇī is a period of progressive prosperity, where happiness increases, while avasarpiṇī is a period of increasing sorrow and immorality. According to Jain cosmology, it is currently the fifth ara of avasarpiṇī (half time cycle of degeneration). The present age is one of sorrow and misery, of religious decline, where the height and shape of living beings shrink. Jain thought holds that after the sixth ara, the universe will be reawakened in the new cycle and the start of utsarpiṇī aras.

According to Jain texts, sixty-three illustrious beings, called, are born on this earth in every Dukhama-sukhamā ara. The Jain universal history is a compilation of the deeds of these illustrious persons. They comprise twenty-four Tīrthaṅkaras, twelve, nine, nine narayana, and nine pratinarayana. A chakravartī is an emperor of the world and lord of the material realm.

Though he possesses worldly power, he often finds his ambitions dwarfed by the vastness of the cosmos. Jain give a list of twelve chakravartins ('universal monarchs').

They are golden in complexion. One of the chakravartins mentioned in Jain scriptures is. Jain texts like and Hindu Texts like Vishnu Purana state that Indian subcontinent came to be known as Bharata varsha in his memory. There are nine sets of balabhadra, narayana, and pratinarayana. The balabhadra and narayana are brothers.

Balabhadra are nonviolent heroes, narayana are violent heroes, and pratinarayana the villains. According to the legends, the narayana ultimately kill the pratinarayana. Of the nine balabhadra, eight attain liberation and the last goes to heaven. On death, the narayana go to hell because of their violent exploits, even if these were intended to uphold righteousness.

Divides the worldly cycle of time into two parts ( avasarpiṇī and utsarpiṇī). According to Jain belief, in every half-cycle of time, twenty-four tīrthaṅkaras are born in the human realm to discover and teach the Jain doctrine appropriate for that era. The word tīrthankara signifies the founder of a, which means a fordable passage across a sea. The tīrthaṅkaras show the 'fordable path' across the sea of interminable births and deaths. Is said to be the first tīrthankara of the present half-cycle ( avasarpiṇī). Mahāvīra (6th century BC) is revered as the twenty fourth tīrthankara of avasarpiṇī. Jain texts explain that Jainism has always existed and will always exist.

In Jainism, perfect souls with the body are called ('victors') and perfect souls without the body are called ('liberated souls'). See also: According to Jainism, the universe was never created, nor will it ever cease to exist.

It is independent and self-sufficient, does not require a creator nor any superior power to govern it, nor a judge nor destroyer. In this belief, it is distinct from the monotheistic Abrahamic religions; it is similar to Buddhism.

It shares premises with the non-theistic part of the spectrum of diverse beliefs found in different traditions within Hindu philosophy and distinct from theistic Hindu traditions. Jain texts reject the idea of a creator, ruler or destroyer god and postulate an. However, Jainism believes in the world of gods and hell beings who are born, and who die to be reborn like living beings in the earthly realm of existence. Those souls who live in the body of a god do so because of their positive karma. They have a metamorphic body, that is they are believed in Jain thought to be able to change their body at will. The gods live a life of happiness, fun and frolic, whose wishes are automatically fulfilled. They also possess a more transcendent knowledge about material things and can anticipate events in the human realms.

However, once their past karmic merit is exhausted, the souls leave the 'god body' and are reborn again as humans, animals or other beings. Main articles: and Jainism differs from both Buddhism and Hinduism in its ontological premises.

All of them believe in impermanence, but Buddhism incorporates, amongst other things, the premise of ('non-self', 'no eternal self or soul'). Hinduism incorporates the premise of an eternal unchanging ('self', 'soul'), while Jainism incorporates the premises of a jiva ('self', 'soul') that is both eternal and changing. In Jaina thought, there are infinite eternal jivas, predominantly all of which are in their cycles of rebirth, and a few who have liberated themselves through an ascetic life and become siddhas ('a perfect one'). In contrast to Jainism, Hindu philosophies express a spectrum of views, ranging from where all souls are identical as Brahman and posited as interconnected one, to where souls are same and have Brahman-nature but are different from Brahman, and to other ideas. Further, in Hindu thought, Jainism-style asceticism is not emphasized, rather liberation is achievable through alternate paths such as,. While both Hinduism and Jainism believe 'soul exists' to be a self-evident truth, most Hindu systems consider it to be eternally present, infinite and the constant ( ) but some Hindu scholars proposed soul to be atomic.

The Hindu thought generally discusses Atman and through a monistic or dualistic framework. In contrast, the Jaina thought denies the Hindu metaphysical concept of Brahman, and Jain philosophy considers the soul to be ever changing and bound to the body or matter for each lifetime, thereby having a finite size that infuses the entire body of a living being.

Some early colonial scholars stated that Jainism like Buddhism was, in part, a rejection of the caste system in Hinduism. Later scholars, such as Gombrich state that this notion is an error for which 'mainly Western authors are responsible'. A caste system has been a historic part of Jain society.

According to Vilas Adinath Sangave, 'caste system is a universal feature of the Jaina community', and the focus of Jainism has been the spiritual liberation of the individual rather than social reforms. According to Padamnath Jaini, the 8th-century Digambara scholar stated that Jain king Bharata, the son of first tirthankara named, invented the caste system by performing the ahiṃsā (non-violence) test, with Jain being those who followed the non-violence precept. All three religions share concepts and doctrines such as karma and rebirth, and have similar ritual festival grammar, mythologies and monastic traditions.

They do not believe in eternal heaven or hell or judgment day. Jainism, like Buddhism and Hinduism, grants the freedom to choose beliefs such as in gods or no-gods, agree or disagree with core teachings, participate or not participate in prayers, rituals and festivals. They all consider ethical values such as non-violence to be important, and link suffering to craving, individual's actions, intents and karma, and believe spirituality is a means to enlightened peace, bliss and eternal liberation ( moksha). Jainism is similar to Buddhism in rejecting the Vedas and the Hindu metaphysical concept for Reality called Brahman. Jainism and Hinduism, however, both believe 'soul exists' as a self-evident truth, and in their historic theology and practice have been more similar than with Buddhism.

Jains and Hindus have frequently intermarried over their history, particularly in northern, central and western regions of India. Art and architecture. Inscriptions at a Udaygiri-Khandagiri 1st-century BCE Jain rock cut cave,. Ayagapata is a type of tablet used in Jainism for donation and worship in the early centuries. These tablets are decorated with objects and designs central to Jain worship such as the,. They present simultaneous trends or image and symbol worship. Numerous such stone tablets were discovered during excavations at ancient Jain sites like near in Uttar Pradesh, India.

The practice of donating these tablets is documented from 1st century BCE to 3rd century CE., a preaching hall of tirthankaras with various beings concentrically placed, is an important theme of Jain art. The, Rajasthan, is a good example of Jain architecture. Decorated manuscripts are preserved in Jain libraries, containing diagrams from Jain cosmology. Most of the paintings and illustrations depict historical events, known as Panch Kalyanaka, from the life of the tirthankara. Rishabha, the first tirthankara, is usually depicted in either the or kayotsarga, the standing position.

He is distinguished from other tirthankara by the long locks of hair falling to his shoulders. Bull images also appear in his sculptures. In paintings, incidents from his life, like his marriage and marking his forehead, are depicted. Other paintings show him presenting a pottery bowl to his followers; he is also seen painting a house, weaving, and being visited by his mother Marudevi.

Each of the twenty-four tirthankara is associated with distinctive emblems, which are listed in such texts as Tiloyapannati, Kahavaali and Pravacanasaarodhara. Main article: Jain Tirtha ('pilgrim') sites are divided into the following categories:. Siddhakshetra – Site of the of an arihant ( kevalin) or tirthankara, such as:, and (capital of ). Atishayakshetra – Locations where divine events have occurred, such as:,. Puranakshetra – Places associated with the lives of great men, such as:,. Gyanakshetra – Places associated with famous, or centers of learning, such as.

Outside contemporary India, Jain communities built temples in locations such as,. However, according to a UNESCO tentative world heritage site application, Nagarparkar was not a 'major religious centre or a place of pilgrimage' for Jainism, but it was once an important cultural landscape before 'the last remaining Jain community left the area in 1947 at Partition'. Statues and sculptures. The Jain emblem Jain icons and arts incorporate symbols such as swastika, om, and the Ashtamangala.

Swastika The is an important Jain symbol. Its four arms symbolise the four realms of existence in which rebirth occurs according to Jainism: humans, heavenly beings, hellish beings and non-humans (plants and animals). This is conceptually similar to the six realms of rebirth represented by in Buddhism. It is usually shown with three dots on the top, which represent the three jewels mentioned in ancient texts such as Tattvartha sūtra and Uttaradhyayana sūtra: correct faith, correct understanding and correct conduct. These jewels are the means believed in Jainism to lead one to the state of spiritual perfection, a state that is symbolically represented by a crescent and one dot on top representing the liberated soul.

Symbol of Ahiṃsā The hand with a wheel on the palm symbolizes with ahiṃsā written in the middle. The wheel represents the ('Wheel of the Dharma'), which stands for the resolve to halt the saṃsāra ('wandering') through the relentless pursuit of ahimsā ('compassion'). See also: and The origins of Jainism are obscure. The Jains claim their religion to be eternal, and consider to be the founder in the present time-cycle, the first of 24 Jain tirthankaras in Jain belief, and someone who lived for 8,400,000 purva years.

According to one hypothesis, such as one by, the first vice president of India, Jainism was in existence before the Vedas were composed. According to historians, the first 22 of the 24 tirthankaras were mythical figures. These figures were supposed to have lived more than 85,000 years ago.

They were five to hundred times taller than average human beings and lived for thousands of years. The 23rd tirthankara, is generally accepted to be based on an ancient historic human being of uncertain dates, possibly 8th–7th century BCE. Some confessional Jain scholars such as Parikh have argued that some images such as those of the bull in seal may be related to Jainism, but such claims are highly speculative and a subjective interpretation.

This theory has not been accepted by most scholars because very little is known about the Indus Valley iconography and script. Jainism, like Buddhism, is one of the traditions of ancient India, those that rejected the and developed their own scriptures. There is inscriptional evidence for the presence of Jain monks in south India by the second or first centuries BC, and archaeological evidence of Jain monks in Saurashtra in Gujarat by the second century CE. Statues of Jain tirthankara have been found dating back to second century BC.

Political history. Chaumukha Sculpture with Four Jinas (Rishabhanatha (Adinatha), Parshvanatha, Neminatha, and Mahavira), LACMA, 6th century Mahāvīra and Buddha are generally accepted as contemporaries (circa 5th century BCE). The interaction between Jainism and Buddhism began with the Buddha. Buddhist texts refer to Mahāvīra as Nigantha Nataputta. Beyond the times of the Mahāvīra and the Buddha, the two ascetic sramana ('seeker') religions competed for followers as well as the merchant trade networks that sustained them.

Their mutual interaction, along with those of Hindu traditions, have been significant. In some cases the titles of the Buddhist and Jaina texts are the same or similar but present different doctrines. Royal patronage has been a key factor in the growth as well as the decline of Jainism. The Pallava King (600–630 CE) converted from Jainism to Shaivism under the influence of. His work ridicules certain Shaiva sects and the Buddhists and also expresses contempt towards Jain ascetics. Sambandar converted the contemporary king to Shaivism. During the 11th century, a minister to the Jain king, succeeded in converting numerous Jains to the Shaivite sect.

The Lingayats destroyed various temples belonging to Jains and adapted them to their use. 1108–1152 CE) became a follower of the sect under the influence of, after which Vaishnavism grew rapidly in what is now Karnataka. The Indra Sabha cave at the, are co-located with Hindu and Buddhist monuments.

Jainism and Hinduism influenced each other. Jain texts declare some of the Hindu gods as blood relatives of legendary tirthankara. Neminatha, the 22nd tirthankara for example is presented as a cousin of Krishna in Jain Puranas and other texts. However, Jain scholars such as also wrote satires about Hindu gods, mocking them with novel outrageous stories where the gods misbehave and act unethically.

The Hindu gods are presented by some Jain writers as persecuting, tempting, afraid of, or serving a legendary Jina before he gains omniscience. In other stories, one or more Jinas easily defeat the Hindu deities such as, or and who come to pay respect to a Jina at a major Jain pilgrimage site such as Mount Satrunjaya. The Jain and Hindu communities have often been very close and mutually accepting.

Some Hindu temples have included a Jain Tirthankara within its premises in a place of honour. Similarly numerous temple complexes feature both Hindu and Jain monuments, with and among some of the most well known. The ruins of in, Pakistan, a pilgrimage site before 1947. Jainism faced persecution during and after the.

Muslims rulers, such as (1001), (1175) and (1298) further oppressed the Jain community. They vandalised idols and destroyed temples or converted them into mosques. They also burned Jain books and killed Jains. There were significant exceptions, such as Emperor (1542–1605) whose legendary religious tolerance, out of respect for Jains, ordered the release of caged birds and banned the killing of animals on the Jain festival of Paryusan. After Akbar, Jains faced an intense period of Muslim persecution in the 17th century. The Jain community were the traditional bankers and financiers, and this significantly impacted the Muslim rulers.

However, they rarely were a part of the political power during the Islamic rule period of the Indian subcontinent. Colonial era Colonial era reports and Christian missions variously viewed Jainism as either a sect of Hinduism or Buddhism, or as a distinct religion.

According to Padmanath Jaini, Christian missionaries expressed extreme frustration at Jain people without pagan creator gods refusing to convert to Christianity, while colonial era Jain scholars such as defended Jainism against criticism and misrepresentation by Christian activists. Missionaries of Christianity and Islam considered Jain traditions as idolatrous and a false religion, characterizing Jain temples and icons, such of those of Jina, as false idols and superstitious practices.

These criticisms, states, were flawed and also ignored similar practices within sects of Christianity. The British colonial government in India, as well as Indian princely states, passed laws that made monks roaming naked in streets a crime, one that led to arrest. This law particularly impacted the Digambara monks. The Akhil Bharatiya Jaina Samaj opposed this law, and argued that it interfered with the religious rights of Jains. Acharya entered Bombay (now Mumbai) in 1927, but was forced to cover his body. He then led an India-wide tour as the naked monk with his followers, to various Digambara sacred sites, and was welcomed by kings of the Maharashtra provinces. Shantisagar fasted to oppose the restrictions imposed on Digambara monks by the and prompted their discontinuance.

The colonial era laws that banned naked monks remained effective through World War II, but they were abolished by independent India after it gained independence. Jains in the modern era. Ancient Followers of the path practised by the Jinas are known as Jains. The majority of Jains currently reside in India.

With four to five million followers worldwide, Jainism is relatively small compared to. Jains form 0.37% of 's population. Most of them are concentrated in the states of (1.4 million in 2011, 31.46% of Indian Jains), (13.97%), (13.02%) and (12.74%). (9.89%), (4.79%), (3.73%) and (2.01%) also have significant Jain populations. Outside India, Jain communities can be found in, the,. According to the National Family and Health Survey (NFHS-4) conducted in 2015-16, Jains form the wealthiest community in India. Jains have the highest literacy rate (87%) in India, in the 7-years to oldest age group, according to its 2011 census.

The Jaina community also has the highest number of college graduates. Excluding the retired senior citizens, Jain literacy rate in India exceeded 97%. The female to male child sex ratio in the 0-6 year age was second lowest for Jains (870 girls per 1,000 boys), higher than in India.

Further, Jain males have the highest work participation rates, while Jain females have the lowest work participation rates in India. Major Jain communities.

Jain Temple complex,. are a community from,. Jain is a small community scattered all over South and Central India and patrons of many Jain Institutions. is a community in,. They have been followers of Jainism since ancient time. community that originated in southern, India. is a major community from the, which is largely in.

of is an ancient merchant community from Punjab region which mainly follows Jainism. or Khandelwali originated from, a historical town in northern. from (currently known as ) a princely state in, a community of Digambar sect., originally from, town in southern. The Shrimal (Srimal) Jain are part of the merchant and minister caste that is found primarily in the north of India. are a community with origins in the region of and in.

are mainly located in the and region. emerged as a result of blending of several smaller Jain communities in East Africa as well as in Gujarat itself in early 20th century. Jainism has been praised for some of its practices and beliefs., who was greatly influenced by Jainism, said: No religion in the World has explained the principle of Ahiṃsā so deeply and systematically as is discussed with its applicability in every human life in Jainism.

As and when the benevolent principle of Ahiṃsā or non-violence will be ascribed for practice by the people of the world to achieve their end of life in this world and beyond, Jainism is sure to have the uppermost status and Mahāvīra is sure to be respected as the greatest authority on Ahiṃsā. See also. This view, however, is not shared by all Jain sub-traditions. For example, the Terapanthi Jain tradition, with about 250,000 followers, considers both good karma such as compassionate charity, and bad karma such as sin, as binding one's soul to worldly morality. It states that any karma leads to a negation of the 'absolute non-violence' principle, given man's limited perspective. It recommends that the monk or nun seeking salvation must avoid hurting or helping any being in any form.

Jain literature, like Buddhist and Hindu literature, has also debated the aspects of violence and non-violence in food creation. In Jainism, the ahiṃsā precept for a mendicant requires avoidance of touching or disturbing any living being including plants. It also mandates never swimming in water, nor lighting or fire or extinguish one, nor thrashing arms in the air as such actions can torment or hurt other beings that live in those states of matter. The first is desavakasika (staying in a restrained surrounding, cutting down worldly activities). The third is posadhopavasa (fasting on the 8th and 14th days on lunar waxing and waning cycles). The fourth is dana (giving alms to Jain monks, nuns or spiritual people).

According to Dundas, samayika seems to have meant 'correct behavior' in early Jainism. This meditative focus contrasts with the focus of Buddhism, and the focus in various schools of Hinduism such as and schools. The ontological categories and definition of dharma as motion, and adharma as rest, is unique to Jainism among Indian religions.

However, like other Indian religions, dharma also means 'moral virtue' in Jainism, while adharma also means 'immorality, unethical behavior'. Balabhadra is also referred to as Baladeva, Narayana as Vasudeva or Vishnu, and Pratinarayana as Prativasudeva in Jain texts. Not to be confused with the four of Hinduism. According to and other scholars, Buddhism too was not a rejection or rebellion against any ancient caste system and it too was focused on individual's liberation from rebirths and suffering. The caste system in Buddhist societies and monasteries outside India have been documented. Gombrich states, 'Some modernists go so far as to say that the Buddha was against caste altogether: this is not the case, but is one of the mistakes picked up from western authors.' .

Some texts refer to the place as Mount Sammeta. References Citations.

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